, But what about the whole epic tradition, formulaic and non-formulaic?-for it is evident from Homer that not every time an idea is expressed will it be expressed in a formula. Did no poet before Homer ever say 'from Troy'? Such an extreme view is surely very unattractive. What we can argue is this: in the last few generations before the composition of the Iliad, the oral poets did not frequently say 'in Troy' or 'from Troy

, It did not say 'from Troy' because, being rarely inside the city, it rarely had occasion to leave it. This would mean that the bulk of the Iliad's Trojan scenes-there are 33 in all-could safely be attributed to Homer's own invention, ? pre-Homeric poetry did not say 'in Troy' frequently because it did not frequently place the action in Troy

, It certainly does not make Homer a pen-poet who inherited the rest of the Iliad. It does mean that the parts of Troy which are not visible from outside will lack formulae-and this is in fact the case. Sale does not analyze the formulaic system of the names for Troy, because he is interested in what he calls the formularity of place-names (more generally than Troy) in the Iliad, which means the statistical proportion of formulas vs. non-formulaic uses of words. He concludes that 'in Troy' does not occur in formulas, but he introduces a note of caution with the qualifiers 'often' and 'frequently, Hector's helmet is just as bright, and the Achaean chitons just as brazen, whether referred to inside the city or out of it

. Nethertheless, Priam's palace, etc. Rather, they all refer to the period before the war, when the "best man who was in Troy married Hippodameia" (Iliad 13.433), when Priam's sons were born, or when Hector was still protecting his family (three examples in Book 24), and further in the Odyssean examples. They all belong to a timespan before the period narrated in the Iliad, and they derive from that a nostalgic tone. The poet never uses those phrases when he tells for instance of Helen inside the palace or on the walls, of Hector's quest for Andromache and their meeting, or of the sacrifice scene to Athena. Actually, Sale does not notice some formulaic uses meaning 'in Troy, my opinion, these uses do not imply that Sale's intuition is wrong: they do not belong to the real Trojan scenes he had in mind, for instance the scenes on the wall in Books 6 and 22

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, * Many thanks to the organizors of the Parry-Lord Conference and the editors of the book, to Stephen Rojcewicz who carefully checked my English, and to the kind reviewer who read the first version of the text with a very positive akribeia

, Or again, we have a certain proof of the traditional character of ???????? ???? ???????? in that this formula is, first, unique in metre among the 14 nounepithet formulae used in the nominative case for this hero, and second, is of the same metrical value with a great many other noun-epithet formulae of heroes-we pointed out 40 of them (TE p, pp.10-13, 1971.

, In the accusative: ?????????? ?????????? (4), ????????? (7), ????????? (1), ?????????? (2), ?????? (4), ?????, ????? (3), ??????? (1), ?? ????????? (2)" (102), An interesting historical view on the formula before Parry, in his work, and afterwards is, 1971.

, I first thought that Bowra did not read Parry or the German scholarship, but the anonymous reviewer of this paper remarks that he quoted Parry's theses written "some 40 years ago, 1972.

, Parry makes a series of binary distinctions between various possible kinds of epithet. He distinguishes in the first place between the épithète fixe or ornementale and the épithète particularisée; then, as subdivisions of the first category, he distinguishes the épithète générique from the épithète spéciale. (See, for example, the thèses he submitted for the degree of Docteur-ès-Lettres at the University of Paris

, we adopt it here, although the complementary relationship with the épithète générique might be better captured by rendering spéciale as 'specific

, We consider Nagler 1967 and 1974 an important step in taking a "generative" view of formulas. See Létoublon 1992 (on the phrase ???? ?????? with various forms of ???????, The notion of "declension of the formula" is owed to the German scholar Kurt Witte, 1913.

S. Polychronopoulou, King Proitos of Tyrins was thought to have called the Cyclopes from Lydia or Thrakia to build the walls, pp.275-294, 1999.

. Lyrnessos, . Tyrins, P. Kalydon, and G. , But none of these walls matter as much for the epics as Troy's wall. Scully devotes one section of his book to euteikheos, another to hiera teikhea. The formal complementarity of ?????? ... ?????????, ?????? ?????????, and ?????? ???????? at different places in the verse, corresponding to Parry's law of economy, The Walled City" (41-53) deals with this question, noting first that only nine cities are said to be walled in the Iliad: Troy (Ilios), Thebes (in Egypt and in Boiotia

, A similar argument might be made for ???????? and ????????: the epithets do not indicate that the Troad was an especially fertile territory, although the frequent emphasis on horses (see below on ???????) might suggest this, as for Pylos and Sparta

, It is tempting to dream about a very ancient poetic use of the qualification of the city as steep before the Homeric epics. Quoting this article, Sale (1987:35n8) remarks: "If this phrase was an ancestor of Homer's, it went through several changes as it descended; for Homer speaks of ????? ???????? only in formulae for the city's destruction, never for motion from the city, Those formulas with ???-in diverse forms appear interesting in a comparative way: as C. Watkins remarked, pp.32-38, 1986.

, Note that in several of these examples, going "to Ilios abounding in horses" is associated with the idea of combat (cf. ??? ??????? ??????? / ???????? in Iliad 16.576, Odyssey 11.169, 14.71), p.24

, Two formulaic schemes are found for Argos, the horse-nourishing place. The first occurs at the end of the verse with a genitive: ??? ?????? ??????????

, ???? ?????? ??????????, vol.152

, The second occurs at the beginning of the verse with an accusative: ????? ?? ????????? (Iliad 3.75, 3.258, 15.30). Cf. also the formula ?????? ????????? at the end of the verse, ???? ?????? ??????????

, See also Strabo 8.6.23: ????? ?' ????? ??? ?????? ??????, ???? ??????? ?? ??? ????????, ??' ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????????????? "???????? ????? ?? ??? ???????????

, The Ophryneion site lies 1.5 km from the centre of Erenköy and just north of a precipitous ravine with banks of oolitic drift in which Calvert discovered remains of various creatures of the pliocene, vol.74, pp.72-77, 1973.

, This instance proves that for the poet, ????? is different from ????????, the first establishment known in the region. See below, vol.32, p.1309, 2009.

, In this case, the city-names ????? and ????? both with suffix-yo/ya, as well as ???????? deriving from Dardanos, vol.34

, on Dardanos; 606-611, on Ilos, argues that, although Apollodorus mentions another person called Ilos, this Ilos is a "doublet" of Tros' son. Wathelet says that the city-name preexists the founder, which seems morphologically difficult, See also, vol.1989, issue.1, pp.1028-1031, 2010.

. Cf and . Faraone, , 1992.

, See Wakker 1994:388-389 for the relation of the wish with the conditional, vol.40, p.37, 1987.

, Sale 1987: 33n25. Occurrences of ?? ????? ????, p.41

, Space does not permit me to consider here the available research on the formulaic status of the names of Trojans and Dardanians

, Neill 1942) to indicate the localization of phrases within the hexameter. Sicking's system assigns a number to, the following list, I use the system outlined by Sicking, p.69, 1993.

, Sicking's Position 6 and the last syllable in Position 12 (which is the last syllable of the verse). The "masculine" (penthemimeral), "feminine," and hepthemimeral caesurae fall at the boundaries between positions 5 / 6a, 6a / 6b, and 7 / 8a, respectively. [ back ] 44. In four of five instances, the city is further specified as ????? 'of the Trojans'

, ????? ???? [P 1-4a] (Iliad 15.71) might be a variant, linked to the notion of ????? ??????? 'steep destruction, p.45

, This formula, whose constituents stand on either side of the penthemimeral caesura, is in an apparently complementary relationship with ?????? ????????, vol.46

, There are an additional 6 instances of ?????? / ??????? with ?????????? / ???????????(?) in various positions in the verse

, the reviewer of my first version of the paper encouraged me to think so, vol.50, p.37, 1987.